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interventional pain management procedures based on probable etiologies,
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After tissue damage following any kind of injury there is release of membrane Phospholipids. By the action of enzyme PhospholipaseA2 this is converted to Arachidonic acid. It again is converted to Prostaglandins (PGs) by the action of Cyclooxygenase or COX. These PGs and other chemical mediators like bradykinin, subP serotonin, histamine, potassium and hydrogen ions sensitize A delta & C fibres (they are pain bearing nerves). So they are up regulated & impulse is easily generated and carried to the dorsal horn of spinal cord. There they synapse with cells of the spinothalamic tract, which carry the impulses up the spinal cord, through the brain stem to the thalamus. From the thalamus, impulses are delivered to various areas of the cerebral cortex that allow the perception of pain and reaction to pain.
In the dorsal horn of the spinal cord the afferent sensory nerves synapse with fibres of the ascending spinothalamic tract, either directly or via a complex system of connecting fibres or interneurons, employing a variety of neurotransmitters that include substance P and glutamate. The presynaptic terminal of the afferent sensory fibre contains opioid receptors which bind endogenous opioid substances (endorphins) or exogenous opioid medications. Such binding reduces or blocks the release of neurotransmitter by the afferent sensory fibre, reducing or relieving the sensation of pain. This is the prime site of action of exogenous opioid drugs. Similarly, activation of the inhibitory neurons in the dorsal horn, known to have endorphins as neurotransmitters, will reduce pain. The inhibitory neurons are stimulated by activity in the descending pathways from the brain or by activity in other sensory fibres in the same segment, explaining why massage, heat or electrical stimulation applied to a painful area may reduce pain. Other receptors in the dorsal horn may have an opposite effect. Activation of the N-methyl D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors sensitizes dorsal horn cells & will facilitate/perpetuate the sensation and may responsible for the reduced opioid sensitivity of neuropathic pain. The NMDA receptor antagonist, ketamine, can be effective in relieving pain in this situation.
Pain impulses transmitted to the thalamus are relayed to several areas of the cerebral cortex: the sensory areas of the parietal lobe that allow localization and interpretation of the pain; the limbic system, which is involved in both the affective and autonomic response to the pain; the temporal lobe, which is involved in pain memory; and the frontal lobe where cognitive function assesses the significance of the pain and the emotional response to it.
The major endogenous mechanism of pain inhibition is the suppression of pain impulses at the dorsal horn by pathways descending from the midbrain and brain stem. These centres receive input from the cortex, the thalamus and other midbrain centres and, by a variety of descending pathways, stimulate the inhibitory interneu�rons in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord, producing analgesia or reducing pain. The neurotransmitters involved with the descending inhibitory pathways are noradrena�line and serotonin. This is a possible explanation as to why drugs that block presynaptic re-uptake and augment the postsynaptic action of these substances, such as amitriptyline, may augment analgesia.
Neuropathic pain results from anatomical and/or physiological changes which may be due to damage to nerves or neural tissue rather than the stimulation of nociceptors by tissue injury or inflammation. Pain results from spontaneous electrical activity of the damaged nerves or to increased sensitivity to exogenous stimuli; the neural pathways involved are the same as for nociception. Damage to sensory afferent fibres results in a significant reduction in the number of opioid receptors in the presynaptic terminals of the affected fibres in the dorsal horn, possibly explaining the reduced opioid sensitivity of neuropathic pain. Damage to sympathetic nerve fibres may lead to sympathetic type pain in which neuropathic pain is accompanied by signs of autonomic dysfunction, including vasomotor instability and sudomotor (sweating) changes.
Chronic pain: a symptom or a disease?
Pain has been defined by International Society for Study of pain as "an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage, or described in terms of such damage." Note the last few words, even in the absence of actual/potential tissue damage if a person describe unpleasant sensation in terms of actual/potential tissue damage it is called pain. Take the example of Phantom limb pain. Here patient feel painin the limb which is not there; so question of tissue damage does not arise. Till 1960s doctors thought it was due to psychological problem but now we know the exact pathophysiology of pain, which is a real painand not psychological. Similarly in lumbago, sciatica, CRPS, fibromyalgia etc. there are definite pathophysiological problem in the nervous system which can be reversed with interventional pain management. It is now definitely proved that with a few exception like Rheumatoid arthritis in all chronic pain there are problems in the nervous system and so Chronic pain can be called a disease itself.
painmay be broadly divided into two types:
Acute pain( may be called Physiological Pain)
? Nociceptive
? It is a symptom of a disease
? Treatment of diseases cures pain& it is self-limiting.
? It is proportional with tissue damage & correlates with clinical finding
? It is an alarm of a disease and is our friend.
Chronic pain(may be called Pathological Pain)
? Non-nociceptive, may be Neuropathic
? It is disease itself, a disease of nervous system.
? Difficult to treat & sustaining.
? It is disproportional with tissue damage & does not correlates with clinical finding
? It is a false alarm and is our enimy.
Definition of Chronic Pain:
Chronic pain has been defined in many ways. American chronic pain association defines it as pain that continues a month or more beyond the usual recovery period. Some has described chronic pain as pain persisting more than 3 months, some by 6 months. In other way all pain is acute pain till it becomes chronic pain. But sensitization is the constant feature in all types of chronic pain.
Sensitization is a phenomenon of inappropriate or disproportionate response to normal stimulus. Sensitization outside central nervous system (CNS) is called Peripheral sensitization and that in the CNS is called Central sensitization.
PERIPHRAL SENSITIZATION: Here there are following changes:
1. Sensitization of primary afferent terminals.
? Inflammatory soup containing PGs, bradykinin, Sub P, cytokines. � sensitization of afferent nerve terminals.
? Changes in nociceptors: Active nociceptors become sensitized and sleeping nociceptors awaken. Formation of new nociceptors.
? Results: Lower activation threshold, increased response to a given stimulus, spontaneous discharge.
2. Damaged axons changes.
? They sprout, forms collaterals.
? �Ephaptic cross talk� between axons (between A-delta & C fibers; Somatic & Sympathetic fibers)
? Increased density of abnormal Na-channel & Ca-channel leading to ectopic discharge.
3. Ectopic discharges along nerve axon, terminals & at Dorsal Root Ganglion (DRG).
4. Sympathetic Nerve fibers invade DRG.
5. Phenotypic switch in expression of neuropeptides like Sub P, CGRP.
CENTRAL NENSITIZATION : changes are following:
1. Central Reorganization. When these signals (for pain) are powerful & long continued they release some oncogenes in the dorsal horn. They are c-fos & c-jun. They in turn release neuropeptides in the spinal cord, which alters anatomy and physiology of nervous system. These changes are called central reorganization. They are as follows:
? A-beta fibres (carrying touch sensations and normally ends in the deeper lamina of spinal cord) develop connections in lamina 2 where pain-carrying fibres normally ends. This leads to Allodynia (touch causes pain sensation).
? Area of pain increases along other nerve distribution.
? Loss descending inhibitory pathways
2. Wind up (summation of signals): Repeated activation of dorsal horn cell by strong and /or sustained noxious stimulus leads to increased excitatory response of these cells.
3. Up-regulation of NMDA receptor
Acute pain ? AMPA receptors stimulated ? dislodges Mg from NMDA
receptors??activation of NMDA receptors. Activation of NMDA receptors leads to following changes:
? Increased signal transmission
? Release of NO, sub-P & PGs
4. Ectopic activity
5. Depression inhibitory synapses
6. Activation of Wide Dynamic Range cells.
All these leads to following clinical changes:
? Increased intensity of pain.
? Increased area of pain.
? Increased duration of pain.
? Decreased tolerability to pain.
? Development of psychological problems.
? pain become non-responsive to conventional analgesics.
Slipped Disc or Disc Prolapse
Diagnosis of Migraine
Migraine is commonest type of headache that needs a visit to a doctor. It is also the commonest cause of severe headache. Migraine headaches are different from other types of headaches and can be diagnosed by its characteristics. Family history of migraines, age when the first attack occurred, and frequency and duration of headaches will also help to determine whether an individual is suffering from migraines or not.
Diagnosis of Migraine
The International Headache Society has laid down the guidelines to diagnose the two forms of migraine headaches:
1. Migraine without aura (common migraine)
2. Migraine with aura (classic migraine)
Migraine without aura/ Common Migraine
I. At least five attacks per year that last 4 to 72 hours
II. At least two of the following headache symptoms:
1. Pain on one side of the head
2. Pulsing/throbbing pain
3. Moderate-to-severe intensity that inhibits or prohibits one�s ability to work
4. Aggravation of pain by physical activity, such as climbing stairs etc.
III. At least one of the following associated symptoms:
1. Nausea and/or vomiting
2. Light/sound sensitivity (Intolerance to light and/or sound)
IV. No evidence of any other diseases that may cause these symptoms
Migraine with aura (classic migraine)
I. At least two attacks per year
II. At least three of the following symptoms:
1. One or more of the following aura symptoms that later subside.
Aura symptoms are:
a. Alterations in vision
b. Numbness or tingling in the face, arm, or hand on one side of the body
c. Muscular weakness or mild paralysis on one side of the body
d. Difficulty speaking or loss of speech.
2. Gradual development of at least one aura symptom over more than four minutes or two or more symptoms that occur at the same time
3. Aura symptoms that last no more than 60 minutes
4. Headache that occurs simultaneously with aura symptoms or follows aura within 60 minutes
III. No evidence of any other diseases that may cause these symptoms
Migraine Phases
Researchers believe that migraine attacks have four distinct phases. These phases are:
1. 1st phase or prodrome
It is experienced by 60% of migraineurs. It starts hours or days before a migraine attack. Many physical and psychological symptoms are seen in this phase. These symptoms vary between the individuals, but remain consistent for a particular individual. The symptoms include:
1. Stiff neck
2. Cold feeling
3. Sluggishness / Mental slowing / Fatigue
4. Hyperactivity / Restlessness
5. Dizziness / Drowsiness /Irritability
6. Increased thirst
7. Increased urination
8. Loss of appetite
9. Diarrhea / Constipation
10. Fluid retention
11. Food cravings
12. Sensitivity to light and/or sound
13. Depression
14. Euphoria
2. 2nd phase or aura
Aura is experienced by 20% of migraineurs suffering from classic migraine just before the migraine attack. It develops 5 to 20 minutes before a migraine attack and lasts less than an hour.
Aura symptoms include:
1. Scintillation scotomas, which are characterized by a bright rim of light around an area of visual loss and flashing lights or jagged lines that block the visual field.
2. Visual resizing or reshaping of objects.
3. Numbness or tingling of the face, arm, or hand on one side of the body.
4. Muscular weakness.
5. Mild paralysis on one side of the body.
6. Difficulty speaking or loss of speech.
3. 3rd phase or phase of migraine headache
Symptoms of migraine headache are different from other headaches.
Symptoms that distinguish migraines from other headaches:
1. Headache on one/both side of the head, behind /around the eyes, posterior or occipital area, or it may be generalized.
2. Intensity of pain is moderate to severe and worsened by physical activity
3. Loss of appetite /Nausea /Vomiting
4. Intolerant to light, sound, or odors
5. Blurry vision /Blocked nose /Pale face
6. Sensations of heat or coldness /Sweating
7. Tenderness of the scalp
8. Prominence of veins or arteries in the temple
9. Impaired concentration /Depression /Fatigue /Nervousness /Irritability
4. 4th phase or postdrome
Some individuals may experience the following symptoms after a migraine attack:
Fatigue /Irritability /Impaired concentration /Scalp tenderness /Mood changes.
Diagnosis of Migraine
The International Headache Society has laid down the guidelines to diagnose the two forms of migraine headaches:
1. Migraine without aura (common migraine)
2. Migraine with aura (classic migraine)
Migraine without aura/ Common Migraine
I. At least five attacks per year that last 4 to 72 hours
II. At least two of the following headache symptoms:
1. Pain on one side of the head
2. Pulsing/throbbing pain
3. Moderate-to-severe intensity that inhibits or prohibits one�s ability to work
4. Aggravation of pain by physical activity, such as climbing stairs etc.
III. At least one of the following associated symptoms:
1. Nausea and/or vomiting
2. Light/sound sensitivity (Intolerance to light and/or sound)
IV. No evidence of any other diseases that may cause these symptoms
Migraine with aura (classic migraine)
I. At least two attacks per year
II. At least three of the following symptoms:
1. One or more of the following aura symptoms that later subside.
Aura symptoms are:
a. Alterations in vision
b. Numbness or tingling in the face, arm, or hand on one side of the body
c. Muscular weakness or mild paralysis on one side of the body
d. Difficulty speaking or loss of speech.
2. Gradual development of at least one aura symptom over more than four minutes or two or more symptoms that occur at the same time
3. Aura symptoms that last no more than 60 minutes
4. Headache that occurs simultaneously with aura symptoms or follows aura within 60 minutes
III. No evidence of any other diseases that may cause these symptoms
Migraine Phases
Researchers believe that migraine attacks have four distinct phases. These phases are:
1. 1st phase or prodrome
It is experienced by 60% of migraineurs. It starts hours or days before a migraine attack. Many physical and psychological symptoms are seen in this phase. These symptoms vary between the individuals, but remain consistent for a particular individual. The symptoms include:
1. Stiff neck
2. Cold feeling
3. Sluggishness / Mental slowing / Fatigue
4. Hyperactivity / Restlessness
5. Dizziness / Drowsiness /Irritability
6. Increased thirst
7. Increased urination
8. Loss of appetite
9. Diarrhea / Constipation
10. Fluid retention
11. Food cravings
12. Sensitivity to light and/or sound
13. Depression
14. Euphoria
2. 2nd phase or aura
Aura is experienced by 20% of migraineurs suffering from classic migraine just before the migraine attack. It develops 5 to 20 minutes before a migraine attack and lasts less than an hour.
Aura symptoms include:
1. Scintillation scotomas, which are characterized by a bright rim of light around an area of visual loss and flashing lights or jagged lines that block the visual field.
2. Visual resizing or reshaping of objects.
3. Numbness or tingling of the face, arm, or hand on one side of the body.
4. Muscular weakness.
5. Mild paralysis on one side of the body.
6. Difficulty speaking or loss of speech.
3. 3rd phase or phase of migraine headache
Symptoms of migraine headache are different from other headaches.
Symptoms that distinguish migraines from other headaches:
1. Headache on one/both side of the head, behind /around the eyes, posterior or occipital area, or it may be generalized.
2. Intensity of pain is moderate to severe and worsened by physical activity
3. Loss of appetite /Nausea /Vomiting
4. Intolerant to light, sound, or odors
5. Blurry vision /Blocked nose /Pale face
6. Sensations of heat or coldness /Sweating
7. Tenderness of the scalp
8. Prominence of veins or arteries in the temple
9. Impaired concentration /Depression /Fatigue /Nervousness /Irritability
4. 4th phase or postdrome
Some individuals may experience the following symptoms after a migraine attack:
Fatigue /Irritability /Impaired concentration /Scalp tenderness /Mood changes.
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